Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique to train attention and awareness and detach from reflexive, "discursive thinking," achieving a mentally clear and emotionally calm and stable state, while not judging the meditation process itself.
Techniques are broadly classified into focused (or concentrative) and open monitoring methods. Focused methods involve attention to specific objects like breath or mantras, while open monitoring includes mindfulness and awareness of mental events.
Meditation is practiced in numerous religious traditions. The earliest records of meditation (dhyana) are found in the Upanishads, and meditation plays a salient role in the contemplative repertoire of Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism. Jainism uses the Twelve Contemplations, dharma dhyana (knowledge of the elements), and shukla dhyana (meditation proper). Buddhist traditions use body contemplations (repulsiveness and cemetery contemplations) and anapanasati (mindfulness of in-and-out breathing) to induce dhyana (meditation proper), broadly distinguishing samatha (calming the mind) and vipassana (gaining insight into the nature of reality) meditation techniques. The Hindu-tradition includes Patañjali's Yoga sutras, Hatha Yoga, Bhakti Yoga (devotion), and mantra meditation. Taoism has ding 定, concentrative stabilizing meditation, guan 觀, insight-meditation based on vipassanā, and cun 存, vizualizations. Meditation-like techniques are also known in Judaism, Christianity and Islam, in the context of remembrance of and prayer and devotion to God. Techniques involve contemplation, repetitious recitation of prayers and holy names, and silent abiding in the presence of God.
Asian meditative techniques have spread to other cultures where they have found application in non-spiritual contexts, such as business and health. Meditation may significantly reduce stress, fear, anxiety, depression, and pain, and enhance peace, perception, self-concept, and well-being. Research is ongoing to better understand the effects of meditation on health (psychological, neurological, and cardiovascular) and other areas.
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